black beauty and the american standards of beauty Essay

Beauty is generally defined as the quality or combination of qualities in a person or thing that gives pleasure to the senses or pleasurably exalts the mind or spirit. While this definition supports the commonly-held belief that beauty is in the eye of the beholder, American standards of beauty have not had many variations over the past few decades. Since the beginning of American history, there have been three ideal archetypal symbols of womanhood that have to do with physical beauty: light skin, a slim body, and straight hair.[1] While there has been some dynamicity, it was very slight and has rarely ever encompassed physical characteristics more commonly attributed to women of color, such as a dark complexion, a voluptuous figure, and thick, kinky hair. The prevalence of the Eurocentric American standard of beauty among young African-Americans has led to self-esteem issues and controversy, but despite the detrimental aspects, it has been a unifying force in the African-American co mmunity. The European standard of beauty, which has always been integrated into American culture, was formed long before African-Americans were introduced into the western hemisphere as slaves. It was used in comparison to African-Americans as a method of stripping black women of their femininity and justifying their inferiority. In historical advertisements and visual performances, physical attributes associated with black people—such as bigger lips, darker skin, and, for women, a larger figure—were exaggerated in order to emphasize how different blacks were from white people, and assert control over them in almost every aspect of life, especially how there were perceived by other races and their own self-perception.[2] As slaves, blacks did not have tools for self-adornment and, while black women could wear different hairstyles to express themselves, they often dressed in what was necessary for hard labor, which did not leave much room for femininity. The article, â€Å"Beauty Culture,† by Tiffany M. Gill, tells of the creation of the black beauty culture industry, post-slavery, as a means of defining beauty in their own lives.[3] This industry, however, was wrought with controversy because of the two categories of products available, those which enhanced the natural physical traits of black women and those that seemingly attempted to conform to white beauty standards. The black beauty culture industry was faced with the task of battling stereotypes that suggested that blacks were innately ugly and that their physical attributes were the reason for their low political, social, and economic status. The importance of the black beauty culture industry is proven by the fact that, during the Great Depression, the industry did not face the same economic downturn as many other black businesses, and women were willing to barter food and other necessities in order to get their hair styled.[4] As the public presentation of black wome n increased, so did hair chemicals that allowed them to mimic the hairstyles of white women, and a well-groomed African-American woman became synonymous with straightened hair, which contradicted the political identities of black women. The Black Power Movement boasted the belief that â€Å"Black is beautiful!† which was revolutionary in its appraisal of black culture, politics, and even style. This created a strong sense of racial pride in the African-American community and unity, especially as beauty colleges became key institutions in the black community. Hairdressers and salon owners were some of the most politically active people in black communities, and their places of business were a safe haven from the humiliations of Jim Crow.[5] By accepting the physical differences between blacks and other ethnicities, the African-American community was able to assert more control over their own definition of beauty and improve their personal lives. Black women no longer had to conform to Eurocentric beauty standards and could stand together to show that they were just as attractive and feminine. This huge part of leisure culture also offered women alternatives to jobs as domestic servants or agricultural laborers . Yet, despite the Black Power aesthetic being popularized over sixty years ago, the overall American standards of beauty still do not accommodate women with darker skin and textured hair. The fact that American beauty standards still hold true to the ideal woman being light, thin, and straight-haired, is evidenced by a simple Google image search of â€Å"beautiful women.† Of the top 100 results, only two are African-American women. Black women, despite an increase in black pride and acceptance of natural features in their own community, are still being judged according to and oppressed by Eurocentric beauty standards. According to a survey analysis done by Dia Sekayi, 72.8 percent of black women attending various historically black colleges throughout the United States, expressed discomfort with the way beauty for black women is defined by the media and society’s expectations of them.[6] Forty-six percent wish they had smaller bodies and thirty-two percent are displeased with their natural hair texture.[7] The use of chemicals and weaves to make black hair resemble the hair of white women and skin lightening lotions show that many black women are not ple ased by their appearance. It’s obvious that beauty has intangible elements, such as confidence and likability, but even these things can be affected by one’s physical appearance. When young girls do not feel as if their beauty is being validated, concern for their appearance impacts their quality of life long-term. Scholarly literature supports the notion that that meeting or not meeting the ideal standard of beauty might impact the quality of girls’ experiences at school, both on a social and an academic level.[8] This issue is important because without a less stringent view of American beauty, black women will continue to be judged by a standard of beauty, even if they choose not to embrace it, that is nearly impossible for most to meet. Black women are currently resisting the dominant aesthetic standard and embracing their own cultural ideas of beauty but in many instances are pushed to hide their true selves. Women who have chosen to wear their hair unstraightened or braided have encountered discrimination in their workplace, despite kinky hair and braids being key hairstyles in black communities across the globe.[9] While there may be a growing acceptance of natural hairstyles in many places of business, there are some Americans who don’t understand that multiple standards of physical beauty must coexist, and if they do not, people who don’t conform to the standard will suffer. It is important for young black girls to feel comfortable in their own skin and grow up knowing tha t they can be their own special brand of beautiful and that there are people who look like them in the media, whether they are dark or light, slim or curvaceous. Battling against aesthetic hegemony is not easy for black women living in the United States, and oftentimes dissonance and frustration is felt because of society’s views on beauty and the impracticalness of American beauty in regards to women of all colors, shapes, and sizes. However, a lessening of assimilation into white culture is being seen and African-Americans are taking Eurocentric beauty trends and turning them into something more. Black women use their African roots and their own sense of artistry to create unique styles that reflect a black culture and the beauty and femininity that they were once disparaged of.    Bibliography Sekayi, Die. â€Å"Aesthetic Resistance to Commercial Influences: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Black College Women.† The Journal of Negro Education 72, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 467-477. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/3211197. (Accessed November 2, 2015) Gill, Tiffany M. â€Å"Beauty Culture.† Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center, (2008): 1. http://www.oxfordaasc.com.proxy.library.vanderbilt.edu/article/opr/t0003/e0023 (accessed November 3, 2015).    [1] Dia Dekayi. â€Å"Aesthetic Resistance to Commercial Influences: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Black College Women.† The Journal of Negro Education 72, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 469. [2] Tiffany M. Gill. â€Å"Beauty Culture.†Ã‚   Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center. (2008): 1 [3] Tiffany M. Gill. â€Å"Beauty Culture.†Ã‚   Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center. (2008): 1 [4] Tiffany M. Gill. â€Å"Beauty Culture.†Ã‚   Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center. (2008): 1 [5] Tiffany M. Gill. â€Å"Beauty Culture.†Ã‚   Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center. (2008): 1 [6] Dia Dekayi. â€Å"Aesthetic Resistance to Commercial Influences: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Black College Women.† The Journal of Negro Education 72, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 474. [7] Dia Dekayi. â€Å"Aesthetic Resistance to Commercial Influences: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Black College Women.† The Journal of Negro Education 72, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 474. [8] Dia Dekayi. â€Å"Aesthetic Resistance to Commercial Influences: The Impact of the Eurocentric Beauty Standard on Black College Women.† The Journal of Negro Education 72, no. 4 (Autumn 2003): 468. [9] Tiffany M. Gill. â€Å"Beauty Culture.†Ã‚   Black Women in America, Second Edition, edited by Ed. Darlene Clark Hine. Oxford African American Studies Center. (2008): 1

Pygmalion VS Pretty Woman Essay Essay

Year 11 Preliminary Extension English Assessment Task – Pygmalion (George Bernard Shaw) and Pretty Woman (Garry Marshall) To what extent have contextual attitudes and values regarding gender and class been maintained or altered in the two texts you have studied? Both Pygmalion, composed by George Bernard Shaw and Pretty Woman, directed by Garry Marshall effectively critique the gender and class disparities of their time, suggesting that these discrepancies were merely social constructs. Through obscure and indirect methods such as the use of humour, irony, character development and transformations, Shaw and Marshall address the issues of gender and class inequality in a milder way, thus skilfully avoiding conflicting opinions with the audience and the general public. Although the two texts belong to different time periods and genres, they are similar in their storyline and unprovocative methods of presenting what used to be a highly controversial idea. In the play Pygmalion, Shaw uses irony to question the society’s views on gender inequality through the characterisation of Eliza, as an independent and intelligent young woman, capable of much more than was deemed appropriate for her sex. Shaw’s philosophy of equality which ridicules the social construct of gender discrepancies is expressed through Eliza’s disgust at having to marry a prosperous man, announcing that â€Å"I sold flowers. I didn’t sell myself. Now you’ve made a lady of me I’m not fit to sell anything else.† This is an example of irony which Shaw uses to target the notion of noble girls aiming to marry a rich man, rendering them dependent upon somebody else. While Eliza was able to provide for herself as a flower girl, no matter how little her income, she was better than the rich man’s wife who is reliant on her husband’s income. In the beginning of the play, Ms and Mrs Eynsford Hill ask Freddy to find a cab for them, suggesting that the man is the one who provides for and protects the woman as befitting for the gender roles of their time, whereas Eliza is different – she finds her own cab to go to Higgins’s house and also pays for her tuition with her own income. Hence it is evident that through the use of irony, Shaw subtly critiques the gender disparities of his time, and using the abilities his female protagonist, he shows his audience that allocated gender roles are simply social constructs, created and preserved by the traditions of society. Through the use of character development, Marshall takes a similar approach in Pretty Woman to critique the issues of gender inequality in comparison to Pygmalion, and though the times during which they were produced were different, both texts alluded to the fact that gender disparities were but social constructs. Alike in Pygmalion, the female gender is expected to act within certain definitions of ‘gentle and submissive’, but both Vivian and Eliza are strong and independent, and do not meet up to society’s expectations. Unlike Pygmalion however, Vivian is a real prostitute whereas Eliza is a flower girl accused of being a prostitute. Although Vivian’s profession is degrading of her gender, her being a prostitute without a pimp gives her power in her relationships, as expressed through her saying â€Å"I say  who, I say when† and her act of negotiating the price of her time with Edward. In contrast to Pygmalion’s ending, Vivian does develop a romantic relationship with Edward whilst Eliza remains independent of Higgins. This again may be degrading of Vivian and her gender as it appears to make Vivian financially dependent upon her male partner, though this notion is disproved when Vivian tells Edward that she will â€Å"rescue him right back†, teaching him life’s morals while he provides for her. This characterisation of Vivian as the ‘damsel in distress’ displays Marshall’s philosophy of the princess who is rescued from the tower, rescuing the prince â€Å"right back†, allowing the issue of gender inequality to be questioned in the film. While Pretty Woman may be much more subtle than Pygmalion, it is shown through the characterisation of Vivian that Marshall not only frowns upon gender inequality in his time, but also identifies gender disparities as a social construct, similar to Shaw in his philosophy. George Bernard Shaw also uses humour to address the social constructs on class differences and depict through the interactions between Higgins and Eliza the futility of the class structure of his time. This is illustrated through Higgins’s confidence in being able to turn Eliza whom he calls a â€Å"squashed cabbage leaf† and an â€Å"incarnate insult to the English language† into a â€Å"duchess† or â€Å"the Queen of   Sheba†. These insults are examples of the humour that is used in the play to present the issues of class disparities to the audience. Using Higgins’s pompous bet with Pickering to portray the fact that even a flower girl can be passed off as royalty, Shaw implies that given the right education, anyone can become ‘noble’ or ‘high-class’. This notion is further supported with the use of humour when Eliza attends the ball and is thought to be a â€Å"fraud† and a â€Å"Hungarian princess† thus allowing Higgins to win his bet. Shaw also promotes his beliefs through his character, Higgins when he argues that teaching the human being another way of speech is like â€Å"filling up the deepest gulf that separates class from class and soul from soul†. Hence, George Bernard Shaw’s intention of using humour and character interaction to question society’s view on class disparities becomes clear as he successfully identifies the class st ructures of his time as nothing but social constructs. In Pygmalion as well as Pretty Woman, there are clear class distinctions in the society, and through the concept of a ‘transformation’, Director Garry Marshall encourages the idea that one does not have to be born noble to be noble. For instance, the treatment that Vivian receives during both her visits to the boutique on Rodeo Drive differs greatly from one another simply because of the change in Vivian’s attire. In response to Vivian’s transformation, her friend Kit tells her that she â€Å"cleans up real nice† while Vivian replies â€Å"it’s easy to clean up when you got money†, suggesting that perhaps one’s class is based purely on appearance and with the right education and money, anyone can be ‘high-class’. The process of Vivian’s transformation is more physical rather than intellectual in contrast to Pygmalion’s Eliza who undergoes months of speech training to make her appearance in the ball, how ever, the same notion of ‘anyone can be high-class’ is supported. Near the end of Vivian’s stay with Edward, he offers to set her up in an apartment so he can continue visiting her, however she  refuses and tells him she once â€Å"would have said yes†, but the time she has spent with him led her to step out of her mindset as a prostitute as she becomes a noble lady. Through the concept of transformation, Marshall challenges the widely accepted view on class disparities and like Shaw, expresses through their work the futility of the class structure of their time. George Bernard Shaw and Director Garry Marshall shared their viewpoint on both gender and class disparities, believing them to be mere social constructs, questioning the norms of their time in their respective texts – Pygmalion and Pretty Woman. Through the use of humour, irony, character development and the concept of ‘transformation’, both composers successfully address the issues of gender and class with their characteristic subtlety. Although Pygmalion and Pretty Woman have many differences including their genre and the time period in which they were composed, they are ultimately similar in the way they critique gender and class disparities using mild and unprovocative methods which allow their philosophies to be communicated to a wider audience.

2 Year Better Than 4

ESLL26-08 04/17/2013 Journal Homework#1 In the article that I read, â€Å"Two Years Are Better Than Four†, Liz Addison, expresses her opinion on community colleges, which she believes that the community college system should be regarded as one of America’s uniquely great institutions, not only because community colleges lets students have a place to start their higher education, but also because community colleges is critical to the nation by offering people a network of affordable future, of accessible hope, and an option to dream.Addison firstly refutes Rick Perlstein’s opinion and states â€Å"My guess, reading between the lines, is that Mr. Perlstein has never set foot in an American Community College†. Then coupled with the writing that came before this statement, this line sets up Addison’s paper and provides the reader with her thesis â€Å"The philosophy of the community college is one that unconditionally allows its students to begin†. And Addison properly concluded her opinion of community colleges towards the end of the essay that the community college really matters to these students, from different backgrounds.It services them a way to prove themselves who would never breathe the college experience. From where I stand, I would look on the community college as a turning point for the whole life rather than a start. Regardless of what background you had or how horrible your life was — yes, they make everyone equal —- and there you will have one shot, one opportunity to make your whole life a big turn. For workers, they will approach the higher education.Community colleges make a balance of occupation and education for them; it becomes possible to take the class after working. The working people have already had rich experience, but lacking of theoretical knowledge, and there they may master it so that they can make progress in their work and improve the quality of their lives. For students who a re not ready for the 4-year universities, they will find discovery of a two-year preparation and transfer to a better university. Take myself as an example.I graduate from a high school in China and just moved in America last month. Failing the exam or dropping out of school may happen to me if I go to a 4-year university directly without language training and then I would spend the rest of my life in the restaurant on waiting tables. Thank of the community college, it offers a key to the American society and live that I can grow up a little bit with my first English class, a bit more with making American friends, a whole lot more with understanding American culture. My life is going to turn with just a placement test.

Project Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Project Management - Assignment Example In essence, the user(s) gains control over their project tasks and they are helped by the Project guide to create projects, trail tasks, and report outcomes. Finally, Microsoft Project software package is installed with a customizable mechanism that takes the user(s) through the process of a project creation- starting from assigning their tasks and resources to reporting and evaluating the ending outcomes (Kennemer , 2002). Redmine This is an Open Source project management tool with a big base of user friendly scheming features. This is the chief and dominant characteristic of this open source tool. In addition, Redmine does not put the user to the need to move from page-to-page or back-and-forth surfing for simple operations, rather it displays all the information and the Gantt chart very conveniently (Redmine, 2013). Microsoft Project has over the years evolved and current version allows for the projects to be viewed through tabulated graphs and elaborative Gantt chart display. In addition, the information is presented in a format that the user is able to analyze and understand. However, unlike other open source management tools, Microsoft Project uses the .mpp format. ... Accordingly, Redmine has the ability of approximating the most probable completion time for a project. For instance, on the Microsoft Project, it is easy to locate the task say Task 21 on the graphical representation, and equally follow the arrows on the Gantt chart to link the association with other tasks in the project. On the contrary, if the same task (21) is analyzed through Redmine all on has to do is click on the task and all relationships and information about the task is revealed. Thus, on this note, Redmine is easier to read information and schedule from than is the case with Microsoft project. From projects in the Microsoft Project tool, the manager has not been allowed the chance to analyze the probability of completing the project on time, rather, this software has mainly emphasized on the dates of start and completion. However, based on the fact that the tool allows for dependency, it has the option of allowing the incorporation of an overlapping tasks by defining a â⠂¬Å"Lead time† for the successor task. Equally, in case a task is delayed and the predecessor task ought to start this software allowed for enter by defining a â€Å"Lag time†. These features were very significant because the tool was able to allow for an overlap of numerous tasks. On the other hand, Redmine was equally equipped with this option but the option is covered through its ability to handle multiple tasks and through its time tracking ability. The Microsoft Project’s default view in is the Gantt chart view option. This is so since, through it, users are able to see task information as both text and bar graphics. Accordingly, the Gantt chart is displayed on a window that is split into two sections.

The Beast in Revelation Chapter 13 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The Beast in Revelation Chapter 13 - Essay Example The beast was given ability to use his power for 42 months, and given power to make war with the righteous and to overcome them (verse 7) ( Merrill pg 258). John saw blasphemous names on the head of the beast rising from the sea. The beast symbolizes the Roman Empire. The Roman emperors were named sebastos, which referred them as spiritual, also, the savior of the world and the Lord. Such titles were meant for only God for he was the only holy and spiritual and holy Jesus is the savior of the world, and that is how blasphemous the names were. Thus, the blasphemous names on the head of the beast clearly show his trial to claim for him the power and glory that belong to God alone. The Roman Empire took itself as the savior. Meanwhile, it was unjust in its ruling and it persecuted Christians and the church. In these ways, it indicated itself as the beast of the book of revelation 13 (Merrill C. Tenney pg 347). However, the power that was pushing the throne of the Roman Empire was the devil also the dragon (revelation 12:8-9).The image of the dragon was the beast, and they have close similarity for they have seven heads and ten horns (13;1).In addition, the beast duplicates the devil by nature. His origin and appearance is a further indication of the evil that is controversial against God and man. The Satan is the mentor of the beast, which gives power, authority and might to him. The dragon is behind the monster from the sea and is accountable for leading the world to sin. Therefore, the beast from the sea is clearly seen as the dragon’s agent on earth. Furthermore, the beast is seen as a military, political, economic and social dominator of the world (revelation 13:5-8).In the book of revelation, the waters symbolize people under the rule of the sea beast, so the beast rose from the human population. One of the beast’s head was deeply wounded. The wound was mortal and it

Modernization and revolution in China from the opium wars to world Essay

Modernization and revolution in China from the opium wars to world power - Essay Example This paper will discuss chapter 12 and the Fourth Generation.Shortly after Jiang Zemen and his 3rd generation of leaders took over power from Den Xiaopeng and other revolutionaries, China began to face a new political succession. Most of the 3rd generation were in their 70's at the time. The New Generation of leaders is important because when the Fourth Generation took over it changed everything including the top ministry level throughout the country. This was very much a cultural revolution. Unfortunately there are many things that we do not know as there have not been many studies related to this generation.This generation of leaders grew up believing in Mao. They later found that their idolism was shattered as they became better educated and began to understand the issues. They, however, acquired political skills as a habit of having a chance to think independently. This is a generation that on top of all of that has bore the burden of what is called the cultural generation as wel l as paying the cost of the reform movement. The reform is really two China's which is confusing to the rest of the world as well as the Chinese.Officially this is a nation of patriots not nationalists. The Party is the embodiment and object of patriotic sentiment. This is meant to make China strong and gain and hold its rightful place in the world. However, even with all of this happening, one must remember that the history of China is rooted in the earlier generations and official discourse. This is all very much linked to the Communist Party. The "Motherland" or China has had many periods in its history of invasion by foreign powers. Many lost their lives in these wars and there were many martyrs for the country. The Party used Marxism-Leninism to bring the country together. They used this to show the fate of the nation and its people and the same time point out the correct direction and path for strengthening their country and making it stronger economically. This has all proven to be quite successful. The success of the country now, of course, is because of the Party and it is centre in the economic development. This has all brought about a new generation of leadership which is called the Fourth generation. There are some pretty specific characteristics about this leadership group. Often called the "Cultural Revolution" generation. All experienced CR either as recent graduates or whilst still at university. Only Li Changchun temporarily involved in Red Guard activities, then neutral. Most avoided participation or were criticized for siding with the authorities. Few had studied or travelled overseas before rising to prominence - viz. Hu Jintao's recent visit to Europe and the eager anticipation surrounding his visit to US Experience of provinces, particularly some of China's poorest - Hu Jintao in Gansu, Guizhou and Tibet - Wen in Gansu - Li Changchun and Luo Gan in Henan. Focus on poverty/economic development - both evident for example in Wen's role in agriculture. Closely involved with economic reforms/associations with most reform-minded sections of CCP from 1980s - Hu Jintao headed the Chinese Communist Youth League, Wen Jiabao worked with Zhao Ziyang - Li Changchun's record in Liaoning where he authorized China's first bankruptcy and defended this policy against criticism. First post-revolutionary generation - will this lead them to place less emphasis on the glories of the Party's past/be less hide-bound by official ideology - Role of Central Party School/Organization Department in "Three representatives" campaign

Establishing a New Recruitment Interview Process using Business Assignment - 1

Establishing a New Recruitment Interview Process using Business Modeling Software - Assignment Example This assignment focuses on the description of the preparation of procedures manual that entails certain stages and specific processes that encompass writing a preliminary outline, drafting the proposal, designing a brochure, detailing the preparation plan, and ultimately coming out with the final procedures manual. The researcher explaines the process of developing of the manual through the various stages. First one enhances awareness on the intricate details and elements of design that need to be incorporated in the final outcome to ensure that the proposed manual serves its purpose. The procedures manual created in the assignment and containing all the crucial elements from all the diverse stages of literary work and design is presented. The manual is for are HR personnel, the potential candidates of the proposed software for the recruitment interview process. In addition, the role of human resources facilitator, in the capacity of the HR manager, is crucial as the person identifie d to interpret and analyze the results and to recommend screened candidates for possible positions in the organization. The implementation of the software program that would enhance recruitment process required the clear and accurate identification of major procedures for the potential users. To conclude, the researcher states that this procedures manual created in the assignment presents the manual overview and solution, the detailed procedural requirements, the benefits to the users, and finally, the author’s information.

Bridge design Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Bridge design - Coursework Example This old bridge carries gas pipelines along with phone cables which are needed to be accommodated in new design as well. Also this bridge provides a secondary path over the railway lines, thus providing an easy and safe transportation of pedestrians across the railway lines. Idea of stayed bridge was first introduced in 16th century which was then furnished to produce an engineered cable stayed bridge after Second World War. This engineered bridge was constructed in Europe to provide pedestrians with the shortest path to their destination. Cable stayed bridges are considered to be like ordinary suspension bridge as their physical appearance resemble a lot. These bridges differ from suspension bridges in a way that the suspension bridges are having two towers but cable stayed bridges make use of only a single tower to hold all the load of deck and traffic moving on the deck. In cable stayed bridges, the single tower is responsible of holding all the compressional forces acting on the bridge and tension is distributed by making use of stays. Such bridges are having specialized orthotropic decks which are furnished with continuous girders and stays for support. The analysis of such bridges is carried out by making use of linear elastic analysis. This technique is used because of the triangulated force approach used in the construction of stayed bridge. In real time applications, bridge is subjected to a number of torsional and shear forces that are being applied through the environment like, air currents, deformation of structure, load distributions etc. but currently we are not concerned with these parameters and considering only the live and dead loads. A typical suspension bridge force vector is shown below: The purpose of conducting this research is to come up with the best bridge design which is economically as well as socially feasible. Major concern is to construct a project which can be conveniently handled by the crew of county works while erecting

Globalization from a Cultural Anthropology's Perspective Essay

Globalization from a Cultural Anthropology's Perspective - Essay Example They came to the conclusion that all societies at their â€Å"civilization† stage must have gone through the former two stages of savagery and barbarian before making their way to â€Å"civilization†. All three stages were characterized on the basis of their shared attributes. Tyler focused more on other aspects of culture, for instance language and mythology, the arts of life and the arts of pleasure. (Hays) Globalization implies increasing influx of trade, finance, culture, people and ideas due to the advances in technology which has indirectly made modes of communication sophisticated, easier worldwide. Globalization has fast taken over today’s global economy. Not only are the world’s farthest places easily accessible but communication within seconds to and fro from different corners of the world has become a lot more easy. Today’s children and youth are far more connected and well versed with their counterpart teens from world over then a decade ago. Globalization studies have become very important point of convergence of interpretive anthropology and cultural anthropology. Terms such as â€Å"The New Economy† and globalization have become integral focus of Cultural Anthropology in modern literature of cultural anthropology. ... For example music, movies, arts. Popular culture and globalization have attracted similar hit songs, movies, artificats, even ways of conducted business in countries sharing different cultures. This is primarily because of more and easy awareness. So much has the influence of globalization been on cultural anthropology that today branding and value creation have whole heartedly accepted their importance. Massive campaigns world over are built accordingly. William Mazzarella’s award winning work titled â€Å"Very Bombay: Contending with the Global in an Indian Advertising Agency† is a very important example. (Harris) The widespread perception of consumer culture has always been there. Many attribute to America’s wealth and the status emerging out of WWII. Corporations back then were at their peak of manufacturing capacity. They had made a lot of money by capitalizing on the military needs and requirement. As a result, living standards rose and demands for material goods with more social standing also peaked. This lifestyle has stayed for the past few generations and now in most cases we short-sighted assume that we will always live like this. A good example of culturally invasive global trend can be seen in plastic surgery rooms in Iran. During the course of Islamic Revolution, makeup stayed restricted to Persian women and their faces would be covered to Islamic culture and names. As of today, Iran has become the nose job capital of the world. Iranian women world over spend more than â€Å"1500 dollars† to achieve what they call the â€Å"perfect nose† . The influences of satellite and television have also been immense and invasive. Persian women and many South Asian countries have adopted the idea that western nose is

Femininity in the modern art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Femininity in the modern art - Essay Example For many years, painting has been considered as a form of art that is used for recreational purposes. The modern era, however, uses paintings a form of communication. People now use paintings as a form of expressing their views regarding certain societal issues that are of much concern. These emergences of new uses of paintings are regarded as the modernity of paintings. A good example of issues that have been greatly discussed by the use of paintings is femininity. For instance, Clark argues on the factors that might have been responsible for the options of modernity that eventually became to be regarded as the Manet territory. This case proves to the audience that artists have various impressions of their paintings. All that matters is the intended message and the target audience. This case also means that every painter has his or her own target audience. Femininity can be associated with the responsibilities that are often regarded as being directed to women. Therefore, some artis tic impressions can be associated to women. Female artists also have a say in the artistic world. For many years, men have been associated with performing various arts, as opposed to women. Therefore, it is time that the women in the society come out and show their ability in almost everything that men seem to outshine them in. good modernity examples that women would address in their pieces of art include modern life, the public modern, the issue of men and women involvement in the private sphere, and women and gaze.

To what extent has Henry VIIs success as the first of the Tudor Essay

To what extent has Henry VIIs success as the first of the Tudor Monarchs been exaggerated - Essay Example This was shown in his productive use of the chamber system for money matters during his â€Å"personal rule† from 1503-1509, which Edward IV (1471-1483) introduced previously. Furthermore, we find fault in Christine Carpenter’s observation that Henry â€Å"became king under better circumstances than any other† – because the country itself was battered and bruised from the long and arduous Wars of the Roses. The above issues are just some of the arguments that make Henry VII’s alleged success controversial and exaggerated. But in order to come to a conclusive and relatively balanced position as to how exaggerated Henry’s success has been, it is imperative to review some of the historiographical evidence available to us from contemporary and modern day accounts. Why would anyone want to distort or exaggerate Henry’s success? Usually the answer can be found embedded in matters concerning patronage, flattery and the obvious fact that few individuals would wish to risk their lives in making the king appear ignorant or incompetent. For starters, I can easily understand what Michael Sittow’s portrait of Henry in 1505 was trying to depict. Sittow conveyed a man that is richly dressed (showing his omnipotent Tudor badge) with the faint presence of what seems a slight, grudging smile. Here, we first encounter the exaggeration in terms of his physical appearance. If Sittow’s portrait were entirely accurate, for instance, then why would Pietro Torrigiano’s sculpture be so very different? As Dawson stated, they are so peculiarly distinct from each other that the latter’s Henry â€Å"could be a different man.† Torrigiano used higher cheekbones and a longer nose, which, no doubt, modified to take after the â€Å"high Roman fashion† reflected in Shakespeare’s own, Antony and Cleopatra. Obviously, the sculptor aimed to create a domineering, decisive and commanding figure.

I.S.U journal Kite runner Essay Example for Free

I.S.U journal Kite runner Essay Plot (important action only): The kite runner is about the life of a young boy named Amir. Amir lives in a lavish house in the richest district of Kabul, in Afghanistan. Amir has everything he could ever want except the loving attention and acceptance of his father, Baba. In their house, they have two Hazara servants. Ali and his son Hassan who are part of the minority ethnicity at the time. Hassan grew up with Amir in the same house and he was much more than just a best friend. Baba treated Hassan equally to Amir, as if they were brothers. Each year it was a tradition for the Afghan community to have a festival of kites where there would be a single victor to arise amongst hundreds. Amir was a great kite flyer and Hassan was the best kite runner there was. This year, Amir won the tournament and his dad was really proud of him. Amir was really happy to finally have some loving attention from his father. Hassan promised to run the last kite defeated for Amir. He did not return immediately so Amir went looking for him. Amir saw Hassan cornered by Assef, a bully, and two of his friends. Amir then watched Hassan take a brutal beating just to keep the blue kite for him. Amir watched him get beaten and did nothing. The relationship between Amir and Hassan has never been the same after that day. Amir felt that either he or Hassan must leave and so he puts his birthday gift under Hassan’s pillow. Later, Hassan admits that he stole them and Ali says they must leave. Baba pleads with him to stay, but Ali refuses. Years after Hassan and Ali left, the Roussi army attacked, forcing Baba and 18 year old Amir to flee the country to California. The states provided a whole new life for Baba and especially Amir. Amir attends high school and college to pursue his dream; to become a famous writer. Amir is haunted every day by the thought of Hassan getting beaten and him not reacting, pretending as if he were never there. In California, Baba finds an Afghan community in which he is quite popular already. He spends a lot of time at a flea market where there are many other Afghans too. Amir spots a young afghan lady, Soraya, at the flea market which he cannot keep his eyes off. When Amir’s father becomes ill with cancer, Amir asks Soraya to marry him. Very shortly after they get married, Baba dies. Soraya and Amir then try to have kids but fail to and it is then when Amir receives a call from a man he has not heard of in a very long time. Rahim Khan tells Amir of the death of Hassan and his wife. Amir is devastated by the news. Rahim also tells Amir that their son is now in an orphanage. Rahim tells Amir that finding Hassan’s son is his chance to redeem his sin. Amir then goes to Afghanistan to find Hassan’s son. With many obstacles, including a one on one fight to the death with Assef, the bully who bullied him and Hassan at a young age, Amir comes out of Afghanistan with Hassan’s son. He comes back to California with many injuries. Sohrab, Hassan’s son, goes to school and lives a new life in America. Hassan and his wife officially adopt him and provide him a life full of potential. The novel ends with Amir teaching Sohrab how to fly a kite, as he battles a kite and defeats it. Characters: Amir: Amir is the narrator and protagonist of the novel. He is a Pashtun boy, who evolves throughout the book to become an adult. He is also a great writer and storyteller. As readers we feel much compassion for him. His father is a wealthy man by Afghan standards, and so Amir grows up always having what he wants. He has everything he could wish for except the loving attention of his father. He does not feel a deep emotional connection with Baba and this causes Amir to feel a strong jealousy towards anyone receiving his father’s affection. Amir thinks Baba wishes he was more like him. Amir is often jealous of the way Baba treats Hassan. He notices that Hassan is much more like his father than he is. Amir is a conflicted character who struggles between the logical and emotional sides of his being. Throughout the novel, he struggles to make connections with his father. His obsession and guilty conscience, along with his adult perspective looking back at childhood events make him a good storyteller. Amir seems to be a mix of Hassan’s personality and Assef’s personality making him in the middle of good and bad. He then gets the chance to fight Assef one on one to the death which was like facing the bad side of himself. Baba: Baba is Amir’s father. Later in the novel we find out that he is also Hassan’s father. He is considered a hero and a leader in Kabul and he is always doing things for others. He always seems to expect more from Amir. Baba has excellent morals and philosophies on life that he tries to teach Amir over time. He was even willing to sacrifice himself to keep the Russian guard from raping the women travelling with them. By doing so, Amir later understands that doing what is right is better than saving yourself. Baba felt guilty through his whole life for not being able to acknowledge Hassan as his son. For this reason, he tries to redeem his guilt by providing good actions to everyone around him. He even built an orphanage. His emotions are very well hidden by his outer appearance. In the end, he is very proud of Amir. He dies happily because he was able to build the relationship he had always wanted with at least one of his sons. We also find out that Amir and Baba both shared a never-ending feeling of guilt inside of them for different reasons. Hassan: Hassan is Amir’s playmate and servant. He is a Hazara and we find out late in the novel that he is Amir’s half-brother. Hassan epitomizes the perfect servant who is not only loyal to his master, but also forgiving and good-natured. Even after he’s been betrayed, Hassan lies for Amir and he still considers him as a friend. Hassan grows up in the same place as Amir but has a different purpose. He is a servant and so he prepares Amir for school every morning by preparing his breakfast and books. He also does all the chores during the day while Amir is at school getting an education. Hassan later gets married and has a son. He dies late in the novel. Hassan represents all that is good and kind. Assef: Assef is the antagonist of the novel. Assef does not see Hazaras as equal to Pashtuns. Near the beginning of the novel, he beats Hassan violently. At the end of the novel, he fights Amir one on one to the death until Sohrab shot him in the eye. He is a villain who ends up joining the Taliban. Assef represents all that is evil and cruel. Personal reaction to the novel: The kite runner was an amazing novel. I personally loved it. I finished the book in less than a week because I simply could not stop reading it after I first opened the book. I felt a lot of strong emotions when reading this book. When Hassan was beaten violently and Amir just stood there and watched, I was really scared for Hassan. The picture was very vivid in my mind and I felt terrible for Hassan. I also felt sad for Amir because he only finds out in the end that he and his dad were much more alike than they both thought. When Baba is already dead, Amir finds out the truth about him and how they both share an endless guilt. I also really liked this novel because I got to learn a bit about Afghanistan since it was the main setting of the novel. Out of all the books that students have to read in English class throughout the years, this is one of the few that are really good. I actually really enjoyed reading this book, unlike many books read in the past years. I would strongly suggest to keep teaching this book to future students. Author’s style and voice: The kite runner written by Khaled Hosseini uses the narrative writing style. The author places himself as Amir and narrates you the story. The author also uses a lot of accurate descriptions to give the readers a vivid image of a setting, character or object. Since it is Amir narrating the story, he tells it from the viewpoint of an adult looking back across his life. It is a personal narration in an informal, conversational style, similar to dialogue rather than a self-consciously literary style of writing. Amir’s voice is pretty consistent throughout most of the novel. However, the vocabulary and diction develop as he moves from talking about his childhood years to talking about his adult years. At the beginning of the book, when he narrates his childhood life, he tends to use childlike language such as he never told on me1. When he gets older, the vocabulary and diction used to narrate are more advanced since Amir has evolved not only physically, but intellectually as well. The author’s voice or Amir’s voice also changes at times of stress or anxiety. After his fight with Assef, the sentence structure becomes very hesitant and broken to reflect the severe temporary damage of Amir’s mind. Themes: Redemption: Redemption is searched by two important characters through the novel. Baba and Amir are both seeking redemption for two different reasons. Baba had sex with his servant and this resulted in having a Hazara boy. Because Hassan was a Hazara, he could not publically announce that he was his son and so he kept it a secret during his whole life. The fact that he could not acknowledge Hassan as his son made him feel very guilty and he never stopped striving to redeem himself. Baba even built an orphanage to help redeem himself according to Rahim Khan. Amir is also searching for redemption ever since he saw Hassan take a beating without reacting at all. Redemption is what brings Amir to Afghanistan which is a big event in this story. Forgiveness: Hassan’s actions demonstrate that he did forgive Amir’s betrayal. Amir pretty much spends the entire novel to learn about the nature of forgiveness. Baba’s actions of redemption are an attempt to gain public forgiveness for what he has not even publically admitted to have done. When Amir finally discovers Baba’s big secret from Rahim’s letter, he ends up forgiving his father. Forgiveness plays an important role in the story. Immigrant experience: In this book, we get to know how hard it can be for immigrants to leave their homeland and to successfully arrive to their destination. Baba and Amir are among many Afghans who struggle to leave. There are plenty of calculated risks and uncertainties in the next passages for immigrants. Many immigrants die before they even reach their new homes. In addition to the difficulties of their lives in a new country, the immigrants also have to accept what or who they have left behind. When arriving to a new country, immigrants also try to maintain their traditions and some semblance of their own culture, which can be hard. Baba loses his status once they arrive in America and still has his old prejudices. Soraya and her mother also demonstrate the difficult role women have balancing the expectations of an old world culture with the new world in which they are living. Sohrab quickly adapts to his new country and has a life full of potential waiting for him. Symbols: The pomegranate tree: While Amir and Hassan are both young and carefree, they carve their names in the tree and it bears fruit. Therefore, the tree symbolizes their relationship. Much later when Hassan is dead and Amir is filled with guilt, the tree just like Amir’s memories still exists but no longer bears fruit. The tree not only symbolizes a unifying force between Amir and Hassan but also serves as a source of division. When Amir wanted Hassan to hit him with the pomegranate fruit in order to inflict physical pain as a punishment to lessen his guilt instead, Hassan breaks the fruit over his own head to prove his loyalty. The tree brings back vivid memories when Amir returns to Afghanistan. Kites and the blue kite: Kites and everything associated with them are undoubtedly the most important symbols in this novel. This blue kite is even more important because it symbolizes a chance for Amir to obtain Baba’s attention. Amir thought that the only way he’d earn his father’s attention would be to win the kite flying tournament. This blue kite is the last kite competing against Amir’s during the tournament. As he cuts the last kite’s string, Hassan runs off to fetch the kite for Amir. The blue kite also symbolizes Hassan’s loyalty. Amir wanted to show all the kids at school that he won the tournament and got to keep the last remaining kite that he faced one on one. He mostly wanted to show this kite to his father. As the novel continues, the kite becomes a symbol of betrayal which leads Amir to the will of finding redemption. Hassan sacrificed him just to bring kite back to Amir as he said he would. Hassan took a beating to keep the kite and Amir watched it happen without reacting. Amir feels guilt ever since this moment until the very end of the novel, where Amir is running a kite for Hassan’s son. At the end, the kites symbolizes happiness, freedom and peace at last. Scars: Hassan has a split lip since he was a child, and it is one of the features Amir refers to the most when describing him. The split in his lip symbolizes Hassan’s status in the society. It signifies poverty and minority as an ethnicity which is one major thing that differentiates him from Amir, because it indicates that his family do not have the money to fix his lip. Baba eventually pays a surgeon to repair Hassan’s lip as a birthday gift, signifying his secret fatherly love for Hassan. Later in the novel, Assef splits Amir’s lip in his one on one duel with Amir. Amir is left with a permanent scar very similar to Hassan’s. This scar on Amir symbolizes the fact that Amir has become like Hassan not only physically, but mentally too in the sense that he has learnt to stand up for what is right. Bibliographical information: Hosseini, Khaled. The Kite Runner. New York: Riverhead Books, (2003) I got a 4+ on this journal , so it should do you some good 🙂

The relationship between verbal and non-verbal behaviour

The relationship between verbal and non-verbal behaviour The most promising research methodology for studying the relationship between nonverbal and verbal behaviour Three decades ago there was practically no scientific work done on nonverbal behaviour, except some rare cases of research. However, nowadays research on the relation between nonverbal and verbal behaviour seems to be widespread across different disciplines such as clinical, social or linguistic psychology. This is mirrored by the fact that fundamental studies and achievements have been attained within this field of research. The incredible fast speed of books being published and journal articles being written about body language and actual language reflects both the high amount of interest of the general public and scientists into this area and the great engagement and devotion of researchers involved (Rimà ©, 1985). The present brief paper will focus on presenting research methodologies which have proved to be most promising for the investigation of non-linguistic and linguistic speech. One particular research methodology cannot be pointed out as currently there are different vali d and reliable ways of investigating into this matter. Before outlining possible methodologies for investigating the speech, body language relationship it is useful to consider the study field’s research history. It was Charles Darwin (1872) who pioneered hundred years ago in writing about unconsciously processed non-linguistic communication and in outlining the particular emotional nonverbal expressions and reactions of the human and animal body. Surprisingly, Darwin was back then certain about the now acknowledged fact that emotional body responses stem from the nervous system’s activity and are operating inside the unconscious awareness of mammals. He also observed that emotional expressions evolved due to the aim of species to survive through increasing group collectivism and guarding the offspring from enemies. Additionally, he promoted that a wide number of the nonverbal expressions of emotions were innate and not learned. This theory found supported by observations of children born blind who socially interact through clapping, smiling and laughing in spite of the fact they cannot perceive the reactions of others. The observation of animals, however demonstrated that there are di fferent kinds of nonverbal expressions which accompany language with some being semantic content while others target at evoking appropriate nonverbal and verbal responses in others (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1980). The friendly smile of humans has, for instance, been found to be a potential control mechanism against aggressive behaviours in others by being a potential invitation for direct social interaction. Face-to-face eye contact, on the other hand, often results in aggressive behaviour since it is perceived as a threat. One can already realise that with the help of the above mentioned findings the relationship between body language and actual language can be scientifically analysed simply by observing species interact (Pally, 2001). The actual scientific interest into this topic, however, commenced with the beginning of the 20th century, and with having a heavy focus on facial expressions. Anthropologists came to the conclusion that nonverbal communication does not appear by chance but is both learned like a language and while language is learned. Sapir (1949) for instance noted that one reacts to others’ body language â€Å"in accordance with an elaborate code that is written nowhere, known by none, and understood by all† (p. 533). Nonetheless, did not make any systematic or scientific efforts in order to enlighten the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic â€Å"speech† any further. Ekman (1975), Scheflen (1964, 1972, 1973), Hall (1966), were among those scientists who began with scientific research into body language. As a matter of fact, their effort was not valued by many but received with utter criticism and mockery. Since then, however, some accepted methodologies have bee n devised in order to investigate the relationship between speech and nonverbal communication and Davis (1971), for example, wrote that, in fact, psychiatry, ethology, psychology, anthropology and sociology are the five disciplines dealing nowadays with non-linguistic communication. She noted as well that those interested in the study of body motion (kinesics) usually prefer the so-called systems approach over others as â€Å"communication cannot be studied a unit at a time† but it â€Å"is an integrated system† that â€Å"must be analysed as a whole†. Therefore, one can conclude again that the way of observing humans or animals in naturalistic or experimental settings is an effective approach to decide over the relationship between spoken language and body language (Sielski, 1979). Cheney and Seyfarth’s (1990) naturalistic experiments can serve as support for this notion as they successfully investigated monkeys in their natural habitat and demonstrated that a monkey’s specific alarming vocal call triggers the fleeing of peers and thus implies that the behavioural reaction is related to the situational and not semantic context of the alarm signal. Dixon and colleagues’ (1989) observations on humans, can serve as another support for the fact that through simply observing and analysing how individuals act and react verbally and nonverbally one can come to scientifically sound conclusions. They found that body movements signalling discomfort and distress are often aimed at provoking comfort eliciting behaviours in others (Pally, 2001). Another stem of research concentrates on the relation between neuronal brain activity and nonverbal-verbal communication. It has been found, with the help of neuroscience, for example that both the tendency of mother’s and their children to maintain stability (homeostasis) and a majority of their social interaction develops through nonverbal communication. Limbic components of the brain mediate the initiation and influence of nonverbal cues while manipulating, the autonomous nervous system, neurotransmitters, and hormone levels. As a consequence since the delivery of a child, the mother nonverbally interacts with her offspring through all senses and sensory systems (tactile, olfactory, visual, motor, and auditory systems). Language becomes inextricably linked to nonverbal cues as is developed and integrated within the manifested nonverbal communication rituals, rules and habits of mother-infant interaction. Later on, the body language becomes, in fact, more sophisticated and develops parallel to actual language (Sigman Ruskin, 1999). In addition to that, the neurological based methodology successfully demonstrated with the help of patients suffering from brain lesions that the right hemisphere is designed for nonverbal communication whereas speech and verbal communication can be attributed to the left brain hemisphere. Henry (1993), for example, revealed that individuals suffering from impaired right brain hemispheres could not anymore decode nonverbal cues while patients suffering from strokes in the left hemisphere could not anymore articulate themselves verbally. Ekman (1990, 1993, 1997) is another well-known researcher who utilised the so-called Facial Action Coding System (FACS) in order to record and analyse facial expressions and movements through the objective and unobtrusive. The FACS was only recently (Ekman, 1994; Ekman et al., 2002) updated and can be described as the successor of the objective but intrusive electromyography technique which was used by Izard (1979, 1982). There are other widely accept ed facial expression recording devices such as Katsikitis Pilowsky’s (1988) FACEM, which monitors facial expressions with the help of twelve different distances between key points on the face. The most advance laboratory based work on nonverbal expressions was, however, conducted by Reisenzein (2000) who successfully minimised preceding technical limitations and problems and investigated the consistency of 4 elements of surprise such as participants’ facial expression, self-report of surprise, cognitive appraisal of the stimulus as unexpected, and reaction time to surprise (Russell et al., 2003). Hence, studies on nonverbal communication are nowadays managed by using more and more sophisticated investigation techniques. As a matter of fact, advancement in discovering scientifically grounded relationships between one’s speech and body language are strongly correlated to the status of progress and perfection of the methods utilised for assessing, analysing and recording behaviours of interest. Consequently, usage of coders, observers, decoders and raters, are inevitable components in the study of nonverbal behaviours (Fichten et al, 1992). Therefore, there is great emphasis on making sure that the appropriate research methodology is applied and researchers are nowadays required to be technical experts in filming, videotaping and audio-taping of participants. Most researchers within this field agree that in order to successfully investigate the interactive nonverbal and verbal communication one must either use naturalistic or ethological approaches. As a consequence and as a downside, the researcher is often doomed to watch or listen carefully for an incredible amount of hours recorded material again and again before an objective conclusion can be made about the relationship between language and body language. Many compare this tiresome approach to sculpturing as one cannot present the whole block of recorded material in the end but must mould and compress the analysed info rmation into a half an hour presentation or a brief journal article (Rimà ©, 1985). In sum, influential researchers like Rimà © (1985) believe that body language is neither depending on nor complementing verbal utterance but both represent an entity which utilise analogue, parallel and multiple channels in the process of expression. Hence, film material consisting of conversations between two or more individuals are preferably used for studies as it is one of the only ways of analysing the relationship between nonverbal and verbal behaviour together and in relation to each other. REFERENCES Cheney, D. Seyfarth, R. (1990). How monkeys see the world. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Darwin, C., 1872. Origin of Species, Sixth Edition. London: Senate. Davis, F. (1973). Inside Intuition: What we know about nonverbal communication. New York: McGraw-Hill. Dixon A. H., Fisch, H. V., Huber C. Wasler, A. (1989), Ethologic studies in animals and man: their use in psychiatry. Pharmacopsychiatry, 22:44–50. Eibl-Eibesfeldt, I. (1980), Strategies of social interaction. In: Emotion: Theory, Research and Experience, ed. R. Plutchik and H. Kellerman. New York: Academic Press. Ekman, P. (1975). Face muscles talk every language. Psychology Today, pp.35-39. Ekman, P. (1990), Voluntary facial action generates emotion specific autonomic nervous system activity. Psychophysiology, 27:363–383. Ekman, P. (1993), Facial expression and emotion. Amer. Psychol., 48:384–392. Ekman P. (1994). Strong evidence for universals in facial expressions: a reply to Russell’s mistaken critique. Psychol. Bull, pp.115:268–87 Ekman P. (1997). Should we call it expression or communication? Innovation, 10, pp.333–44 Ekman P, Friesen WV, Hager JC (2002). New Version of the Facial Action Coding System. http://dataface.nirc.com/Expression/FACS/ New Version/new version.html Fichten, C. S., Tagalakis, V., Judd, Darlene; Wright, J., Amsel, R. (1992). Verbal and nonverbal communication cues in daily conversations and dating. Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 132 Issue 6, pp/751-770. Hall, E. T. (1966). The hidden dimension. New York: Doubleday. Henry, J. P. (1993), Psychological and physiological responses to stress: The right hemisphere and the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis, an inquiry into problems of human bonding. Physiolog. Behav. Sci., 28, pp.369–387. Izard, C. E. (1982). Measuring emotions in infants and children. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Izard C. E. (1979). The Maximally DiscriminativeFacialMovement Coding System (MAX). Newark: Univ. Delaware, Comp. and Netw. Serv., Univ. Media Serv. Katsikitis M. Pilowsky I. (1988). A study of facial expression in Parkinson’s disease using a novel microcomputer-based method. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry, 51, pp.362–66 Reisenzein R. (2000). Exploring the strength of association between the components of emotion syndromes: the case of surprise. Cogn. Emot. 14:1–38 Rimà ©, B. (1985). The growing field of nonverbal behaviour: a review of twelve books on nonverbal behaviour and nonverbal communication. European Journal of Social Psychology, Vol. 15 Issue 2, pp.231-248. Russell, J. A., Bachorowski, J. Fernandez-Dols, J. (2003). Facial and vocal expressions of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 54 Issue 1, pp329-350. Sapir, E. (1949). Selected writing of Edward Sapir. Berkeley: D.G. Mandelbaum. Scheflen, A. E. (1964). The significance of posture in communication systems. Psychiatry, pp.316-331. Scheflen, A. E. (1972). Body language and social order. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Scheflen, A .E. (1973). How behaviour means. New York: Gordon Breach. Sielski, L. M. (1979). Understanding Body Language. Personnel Guidance Journal, Vol. 57 Issue 5, p238-243. Sigman, M. Ruskin, E. (1999). Nonverbal communication, play, and language skills. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, Vol. 64 Issue 1, pp29-54.

Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom

Importance of Group Work in the ESL Classroom Introduction The field of Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is a rapidly expanding area within UK settings, in state-funded and in private educational arenas, and because of the changing nature of immigration, ESOL teachers are challenged with meeting the demands of diverse and complicated ethnic/linguistic groups (Chan, 1998). Learning English is seen as a necessity for immigrants or long term visitors to the UK, although the field is complicated by political debates and social discussions around funding, socialisation, naturalisation and the erosion of traditional cultures and languages. However, it does seem that language fluency in English is key to proper integration into British society, and is supported by the â€Å"UK Government’s policy response to refugees and asylum seekers [as] outlines in the White Paper Secure Borders, Safe Haven: Integration and Diversity in Modern Britain (Home Office, 2002) [which] set out proposals for a curriculum of English languag e, IT and citizenship classes for refugees and asylum seekers† (Morrice (2007) p 156). While the Therefore, it is essential that ESOL provision is not only provided, but is designed in ways which can encourage learners to acquire real proficiency and fluency, without disempowering people or undermining their nationality (Halliday, 2005). The literature on the pedagogies of ESOL teaching is diverse and outlines ways in which second language acquisition can be facilitated effectively, with teachers having their own take on pedagogy and on the ways in which students work, alone or with each other, in learning English (Dagenais et al, 2008; Burns, 2006). While linguistics studies directly address issues of grammar, syntax, construction, coherence and cohesion, the more practical aspects of developing practical fluency in English for speakers of other languages relate to classroom strategies that can support this. This essay will explore two aspects of ESOL teaching, that of group work, in which ESOL students are encouraged to work together on key tasks, with the aim of improving fluency (Haneda, 2005), and the provision of feedback, either peer feedback or tutor feedback, to enhance fluency. Both are contentious issues, because they can spell difficulties in the management of learning experiences (Holliday, 2005), and co uld be seen positively or negatively. This essay will look at some of the literature on this subject, and attempt to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of group or collaborative work, and of different types of feedback. The author will then draw conclusions from the literature to inform ESOL teaching practice. Discussion Group work is a popular means of building on constructivist theories and pedagogies by supporting students to apply new knowledge in given situations. In ESOL teaching, it provides opportunities to practice new words, conversations, sentence constructions, and functional elements of communication, such as making a particular type of telephone call or initiating a conversation. However, group work in this context can be viewed negatively as well, partly because of a fear that groups with the same first language will simply lapse into their own tongue rather than always speaking English, and that as learners they will not recognise each other’s mistakes. The latter point will be dealt with in some more detail below, in the exploration of types of feedback. But in relation to group work, types of collaborative or group learning or practice have been shown to be of great benefit to students of English. Some authors have found that pair work or small group work in this context does help improve language fluency and competence (Long, 1996; Pica et al, 1996), perhaps because these activities provide different opportunities and options for ESOL learners which are not possible during teacher-led activities. These students may find themselves able to become more confident in a setting which is not only smaller, but comprises only peers who are also ESOL students. Johnson 91995) argues that learners who interact and engage with each other in these ways feel more self-efficacy and control over their own learning. However, others argue that small group work in peer-only groups does not necessarily help with issues such as pronunciation (Morley, 1991) and proper grammar (Widodo, 2006; Widdowson, 1978). Another particular issue for group work is that of English intonation, which can be particularly difficult and may represent for some the last hurdle of English fluency and comprehension (Atoy e, 2005; Morgan, 1997). McDonough (2004) carried out a small-scale research study which â€Å"explored instructors and learners perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom† (p 207). The study also looked at whether the learners showed improved outcomes (McDonough, 2004). McDonough (2004) found that â€Å"learners who had more participation during the pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production of the target forms, even though they did not perceive the activities as useful for learning language† (p 207). This would suggest that these activities might improve elements of fluency and skill, but this study does not demonstrate how this occurs, nor does it look in detail at language fluency, which is our concern here. Li and Campbell (2008) carried out a study in New Zealand which  examined â€Å"Asian students perceptions of the much-promulgated cooperative learning concepts in the form of group work and group assignments†, and â€Å"found that Asian students valued highly the significance of classroom group discussions where they could interact with students from other cultures and backgrounds, improve their English-language skills, enhance their cultural understanding and provide them with opportunities to make friends† (P 203). Again, this underlines social elements of group working in ESOL learning which may be important in developing true fluency, because the elements of language skills and enhancing cultural understanding can be related to development of deeper-level fluency. Not all the outcomes of this study were positive, however, and LI and Campbell (2008) also found that these Asian students â€Å"held intensely negative views about group assignments that required stud ents to complete a project as a group with shared marks determined by the performance of the group† (p 207). This may have something to do with the learner orientations of these students, or it may have to do with other factors. Li and Campbell (2008) found that â€Å"contributing factors affecting group dynamics included members attitudes and willingness to cooperate and contribute as a team, the composition of the group, students competing demands on students time and attention, heterogeneity from the natural abilities of students, and the varying cultural values and beliefs held by group members† (p 207). Because Li and Campbell (2008) found that group assignments that were assessed seemed to disempower the students in their study, it would suggest that group activities which are collaborative have a different meaning than group activities which are assessed, and this should be taken into account when applying group working to ESOL classrooms. However, the study does suggest the group learning itself enhanced competency level (Li and Campbell, 2008). The negative responses to the group assessment activities may have had something to do with students’ preconceptions or expectations about their ESOL learning (Bordia et al, 2006). Expectations which are not fulfilled might negatively affect responses to and evaluations of these learning activities (Bordia et al, 2006). These expectations, of course, may originate in the background, culture and previous experiences of the learner, which would suggest that teachers need to take into account these kinds of expectations and find ways to address them. Ewal (2004) describes a study which focuses on the student perspective on group work, in which â€Å"21 students and their teachers participated in a collaborative forum in which they explored the use of small group work in their L2 classroom.† (p 163). This study found that by engaging students, in an almost metacognitive way, in learning about how the group work affected their learning and behaviour, the students were able to discover the benefits of group work for themselves, in improving their literacy and fluency, and in supporting peer bonding, confidence and self-efficacy (Ewal, 2004). In this study, small group behaviours changed as the students became aware of these behaviours and of the functions of the group and the class as a whole (Ewal, 2004). This demonstrates that while group work is still viewed along pedagogical lines as a requisite of proper learning, through application and testing of knowledge, the dynamics of group work require some attention, and may act as militating or mediating factors in the effectiveness of group activities. Ewal (2004) concludes that â€Å"teachers should be attentive to opportunities to discuss language learning and classroom-related issues with their students† (p 175). This adds an extra dimension to the concept of group work, as functioning for students on many levels, not simply on a praxis/practice level. Of course, the discussion of group work leads us neatly into the concept of peer feedback, which is connected to the theories on group activities and just as contentious, it seems. Rollinson (2005) shows how although peer feedback has been supported in ESL classrooms, teachers and students are less than convinced of its efficacy and usefulness. Rollinson (2005) argues that proper training and procedures for peer feedback in ESOL classrooms is the key to making such feedback effective. Hu (2005) seems to echo this, that peer feedback can enhance learning, but does acknowledge that these activities need monitoring and that peer review situations can be problematic. Feedback and review of English language proficiency can be formalised into learning activities in the classroom context. Al-Hazmi and Scholfield (2007) describe an action research study which was aimed at improving English language writing proficiency in Saudi Arabian university students. This study involved â€Å"a regime of enforced draft revision, using a checklist† in which two groups were involved, one trained in peer revision, the other doing their own revision (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). These authors found that â€Å"there were clear draft improvements in quality, especially in mechanics, despite only modest amounts of meaning-changing an d multisentential revisions being recorded† Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007 p 237). The most significant finding from this study demonstrated that the students enjoyed and responded positively to peer review (Al-Hazmi and Scholfield, 2007). This may simply underline the fact that language learning is as much a social as an individual process (Dagenais et al, 2008; Roberts and Baynham, 2006; Schellekens, 2007) Formal tutor feedback is also an essential component of developing fluency, although again, the form that this takes can affect its value. Hyland and Hyland (2006), for example, agree that feedback is vital in terms of encouraging learning and consolidating that learning, and demonstrate that it is used in process-based classrooms and in genre-orientated learning environments. It may seem obvious to some that tutor feedback is important, but teachers and learners should be aware that feedback has different purposes, as well as different forms, and while it can be difficult for some students to assimilate feedback and correction, it is through signposting mistakes as well as successes that students can learn how much they have learned. Feedback itself has expanded to encompass not only written comments from the teacher, but language workshops, conferences and even electronic feedback (Hyland and Hyland, 2006). Lyster and Mori (2006) examined the effects of explicit correction, recasts, and prompts on learner uptake and repair, and found that â€Å"instructional activities and interactional feedback that act as a counterbalance to a classrooms predominant communicative orientation are likely to prove more effective than instructional activities and interactional feedback that are congruent with its predominant communicative orientation† (p 269). This suggests that feedback must be specific to the task and to the context, and also that there is a need for a deeper understanding of the pedagogical dimensions of formal tutor feedback, and the purpose that this feedback serves. This also shows that the emergence of the communicative classroom is not necessarily the final evolution of the ESOL context (Campbell an d Duncan, 2007). However, there are those who have argued strongly against written feedback, and the trends in ESOL teaching in recent years has been to avoid this (Bitchener, 2008). However, research by Bitchener (2008) shows that in some cases, written feedback enhances learning: The study found that the accuracy of students who received written corrective feedback in the immediate post-test outperformed those in the control group and that this level of performance was retained 2 months later. Bitchener 2008 p 102. This would seem to suggest that there is value in providing written tutor feedback. Lochtman (2002) also shows the value of oral or verbal feedback, but underlines the need to give different kinds of feedback depending on the language learning context, the task, and the learner, suggesting that while this feedback is beneficial, it is only so if it meets the needs of the individual learner. One of the issues with fluency is also related to currency (Taylor, 2006), and it could be that the provision of both types of feedback is central to understanding the current use of various idiomatic forms as well as of slang and vernacular. While many ESOL teaching contexts shy away from teaching ‘common’ spoken forms and focus on formal, correct English, feedback from a tutor, for example, can help to draw comparisons between the two forms and allow students to develop awareness of when it is appropriate to use the different types of English expression (Taylor, 2006; Wallace, 2006). This ability to speak fluently is much more complex than simply learning linguistic form, it is about attaining a degree of comfort and ease with using the language, and using it appropriately and ‘naturally’. All of these approaches to supporting language learning could be said to be fostering this development, but only if they are properly planned, and managed, and it seems that quality ‘teaching’ and facilitation is still required. Conclusion This essay demonstrates that there is a range of literature to support the development of language fluency in ESOL classrooms through group work and through interactive processes of learning, and through the provision of tutor feedback and peer feedback. There are issues and challenges with ESOL learning in relation to developing verbal skills, because verbal language requires real-time interaction and the ability to respond to different cues and situations. It would seem from the literature cited above that the use of group work in ESOL learning needs to be planned carefully and designed to ensure that learning is not impeded by individual differences or by the negative aspects of group work, including frustration between learners with different levels of competency, and difficulties in group work which is assessed formally. Collaborative learning may be a strength in developing fluency, and this could be incorporated with peer feedback, but it would seem that this is only truly effective if the students are ‘trained’ and supported in giving feedback to ensure it is fair and an constructive, and given in the appropriate spirit. Similarly, it would seem that feedback may assist in developing fluency, but the literature cited does not provide strong or conclusive evidence that formal feedback is good for this, despite its value in developing written and verbal language skills. More research is required in looking at different kinds of feedback in supporting fluency. However, the literature does indicate that feedback must be individualised and meet the needs of the learner. References Al-Hazmi, S.H. and Scholfield, P. (2007) Enforced revision with checklist and peer feedback in EFL writing: the example of Saudi university students. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University (Humanities and Management Sciences 18 (2)237-267. Atoye, R.O. (2005) Non-native perception of English intonation. Nordic Journal of African Studies14 (1) 26-42. Bitchener, J. (2008) Evidence in support of written corrective feedback Journal of Second Language Writing 17 (2) 102-118. Brillinger, K. (2003) From Theory to Practice: Creating Intermediate ESL Reading Materials Based on Current SLA Research and Theories, Newsletter of the Association of Teachers of English as a Second Language of Ontario, 29(3), 1-6 Burns, A. (2006) Surveying landscapes in adult ESOL research, Linguistics and Education, 17, 97–105 Campbell, C. and Duncan, G. (2007) From Theory to Practice: General Trends in Foreign Language Teaching Methodology and Their Influence on Language Assessment. Language and Linguistics Compass 1 (6) 592-611 Chan, M..M. (1998) What We Already Know about Teaching ESL Writers (Research in the Classroom). English Journal 77 (6) 84-85 Chen, R. and Hird, B. (2006) Group Work in the Efl Classroom in China: A Closer Look. RELC Journal, 37 (10) 91-103. Dagenais, D. Beynon, J. and Mathis, N. (2008) Intersections of Social Cohesion, Education, and Identity in Teachers, Discourses, and Practices Pedagogies: An International Journal 3 (2) 85 – 108. Ewald, J.D. (2004) A classroom forum on small group work: L2 learners see, and change, themselves. Language Awareness 13 (3) 163-179. Ferris, D.R. (1994) Lexical and syntactic features of ESL writing by students at different levels of L2 proficiency. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2) 414-420. Haneda,. M. (2005) Some Functions of Triadic Dialogue in the Classroom: Examples from L2 Research Canadian Modern Language Review 62 (2) 313-333 Hyland, K. and Hyland, F (2006). Feedback on second language students writing. Language Teaching, 39 83-101. Holliday, A. (2005) The Struggle to Teach English as an International Language New York: Oxford University Press. Hu, G. (2005) Using peer review with Chinese ESL student writers. Language Teaching Research 9 (3) 321-342. Johnson,K.E. (1995) Understanding communication in second language classrooms New York: Cambridge University Press. Lochtman, K. (2002) Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom: how it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching International Journal of Educational Research 37 (3-4) 271-283. Long, M. (1996) The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In Ritchie, W. and Bhatia, T. (eds) Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (413-468) San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Lyster, R. and Mori, H. (2006). Interactional Feedback And Instructional Counterbalance. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28 , 269-300 McDonough, K. (2004) Learner-learner interaction during pair and small group activities in a Thai EFL context System 32 (2) 207-224 Morgan, B. (1997) Identity and intonation: linking dynamic processes in an ESL classroom. TESOL Quarterly 31 (3) 431-450. Morley, J. (1991) The pronunciation component in teaching English to speaker sof other languages. TESOL Quarterly Morrice, L. (2007) Lifelong learning and the social integration of refugees in the UK: the significance of social capital, International Journal of Lifelong Education, 26(2), 155-172 Olivo, W. (2003) Quit Talking and Learn English!: Conflicting Language Ideologies in an ESL Classroom Anthropology Education Quarterly  34 (1) 50-71 Pica, T., Lincoln-Porter, F., Paninos, D. and Linnell, J. (1996) Language learners’ interaction: how does it address the input, output and feedback needs of L2 learners? TESOL Quarterly 30 59-84. Roberts, C. Baynham, M. (2006) Introduction to the special issue: Research in adult ESOL, Linguistics and Education, 17, 1-5 Rollinson, P. (2005) Using peer feedback in the ESL writing class ELT Journal Volume 59/1 ELT Journal 59 (1) . Schellekens, P. (2007) The Oxford ESOL Handbook Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seedhouse, P. (2005) Conversation Analysis and language learning. Language Teaching (2005), 38: 165-187 Cambridge University Press Shin, H. (2006) Rethinking TESOL From a SOLs Perspective: Indigenous Epistemology and Decolonizing Praxis in TESOL Critical Inquiry in Language Studies 3 (23) 147 – 167. Taylor, L. (2006) The changing landscape of English: implications for language assessment ELT Journal 60(1):51-60 Wallace, C. (2006) The text, dead or alive: Expanding textual repertoires in the adult ESOL classroom, Linguistics and Education, 17, 74-90 Widdowson, H.G. (1978) Teaching language as communication Oxford: Oxford University Press. Widodo, H.P. (2006) Approaches and procedures for teaching grammar. English Teaching: Practice and Critique. 5 (1) 122-141. Zamel, V. and Spack, R. (2006) Teaching Multilingual Learners across the Curriculum: Beyond the ESOL Classroom and Back Again. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 25 (2) 126-152.

Emily Bradstreets Poem The Author to Her Book :: Emily Bradstreet Author Her Book Poetry Essays

Emily Bradstreet's Poem "The Author to Her Book" The Author to Her Book, by Emily Bradstreet is a poem in which Bradstreet is laments about the publishing of her writings without her permission. The purpose of the piece is for Bradstreet to express the love, pride and remorse she feels toward her new book and is displayed elegantly through the metaphor of a mother and child. Lines eleven and twelve contribute to the poem’s purpose; they show that Bradstreet is unsatisfied with her work, and desires to fix it. Unfortunately, the book has already been published, and it is too late for her â€Å"child† to attain perfection in its mother’s eyes. The first part of line eleven illustrates the pride Bradstreet takes in her work. â€Å"Yet being mine own†¦Ã¢â‚¬  is Bradstreet’s way of taking ownership of her work, regardless of how misshapen it may seem. Through this line, Bradstreet is saying that because the book is hers, she is the only one with the right and ability to fix it. This is much like when a child gets hurt; only a mother’s kiss can make a â€Å"boo-boo† feel better. There may even be a hint of Bradstreet’s book being like the child whose face only a mother can love. While Bradstreet takes ownership of her book at the beginning of line eleven, by the end of that line, and the beginning of twelve, she is criticizing her work, saying that â€Å"at length affection would thy blemishes amend...† Through this, Bradstreet makes a connection to the beginning of the line, as only her love, care and attention can make the piece beautiful. If she gives enough attention to her â€Å"child† and corrects it enough, perhaps the book would not be such a shame to her. Perhaps it wouldn’t be so ugly. By the end of the twelfth line, Bradstreet has taken pride in her work, and has also criticized it. The last bit of line twelve is where the author shows her remorse. â€Å"If so I could† is the author’s way of lamenting her inability to rearrange the parts of her ill-formed offspring. Bradstreet is saying that her â€Å"child† has already been branded, and there is nothing more she can do to make it perfect.

Marriage in Babbit by Sinclair Lewis :: Lewis Babbitt Essays

Marriage in Babbit by Sinclair Lewis In the novel Babbitt, Sinclair Lewis touches upon various issues that characterize American society. Marriage was one of these various issues that Lewis focused on. In the story, George Babbitt was married and his best friend, Paul Riesling, was married. They both seemed uneasy about their marriages and were not pleased with their situations. George always seemed to care less for Myra, "she was as sexless as an anemic nun... no one, save [except] Tinka, was all interested in her or entirely aware that she was alive" (Lewis 7). Paul also truly disliked his wife Zilla, "why I want to kill her", " (i)f I only could [divorce her]! If she'd just give me the chance!" (Lewis 58-59). This lack of feeling for their wives is what Lewis focused on in the rest of the story. Lewis brings about conflict between these two characters and their wives. He brings about the idea of infidelity between the two married couples. The dissatisfaction for their wives leads George and Paul to lust for other women. Lewis is making the point that when men are dissatisfied with their women, they go and try to find others to satisfy their "hunger". George dreamt of a fairy girl that he could run off with and escape from his friends and most of all, his wife (Lewis 2-3). Babbitt also had two affairs on which Lewis indirectly, with class points out. Babbitt and his buddies in Maine, picked up a prostitute in which some devious behavior took place. This behavior "was never known to his family, nor to anyone in Zenith... (i)t was not officially recognized even by himself". His chief affair was with a widow, Tanis Judique. He had even spent the night with her, but he later dumped her to be free. Paul on the other hand only had one affair. He had an affair with a lady named May Arnold that he had been writing, who lived in Chicago. This affair with May was Paul's infidelity to his nagging wife Zilla. By describing these instances of men cheating, Lewis revealed to his readers what was not commonly portrayed about American culture. Marriage in Babbit by Sinclair Lewis :: Lewis Babbitt Essays Marriage in Babbit by Sinclair Lewis In the novel Babbitt, Sinclair Lewis touches upon various issues that characterize American society. Marriage was one of these various issues that Lewis focused on. In the story, George Babbitt was married and his best friend, Paul Riesling, was married. They both seemed uneasy about their marriages and were not pleased with their situations. George always seemed to care less for Myra, "she was as sexless as an anemic nun... no one, save [except] Tinka, was all interested in her or entirely aware that she was alive" (Lewis 7). Paul also truly disliked his wife Zilla, "why I want to kill her", " (i)f I only could [divorce her]! If she'd just give me the chance!" (Lewis 58-59). This lack of feeling for their wives is what Lewis focused on in the rest of the story. Lewis brings about conflict between these two characters and their wives. He brings about the idea of infidelity between the two married couples. The dissatisfaction for their wives leads George and Paul to lust for other women. Lewis is making the point that when men are dissatisfied with their women, they go and try to find others to satisfy their "hunger". George dreamt of a fairy girl that he could run off with and escape from his friends and most of all, his wife (Lewis 2-3). Babbitt also had two affairs on which Lewis indirectly, with class points out. Babbitt and his buddies in Maine, picked up a prostitute in which some devious behavior took place. This behavior "was never known to his family, nor to anyone in Zenith... (i)t was not officially recognized even by himself". His chief affair was with a widow, Tanis Judique. He had even spent the night with her, but he later dumped her to be free. Paul on the other hand only had one affair. He had an affair with a lady named May Arnold that he had been writing, who lived in Chicago. This affair with May was Paul's infidelity to his nagging wife Zilla. By describing these instances of men cheating, Lewis revealed to his readers what was not commonly portrayed about American culture.

Ethics, values, and social responsibility Essay

In the finance field there are a number of ethical issues although many issues in this field are governed by law. Ethical issues in finance include individual conduct, financial institution operations and financial markets operations. In this field people are trained to perform different duties and thus finance ethics is diversified. However, the top five issues in this field include honesty and fairness, fraud, conflicts of interest, discrimination and information technology. Honesty and fairness in this field has raised much dispute. Because of the intense competition in the world, many people view the conditions in a business to be similar to those in a game of sport or war and thus anything is considered to be fair. On the other hand there are those who argue that not everything is considered to be honest and fair. This has therefore led to ethical issues in this field regarding what is ‘honest and fair’ and what is not. Conflicts of interest is mainly observed in situations where an individual is placed in a position of making a decision on whether to pursue personal interests or the interests of other individuals or business. Similar, it can involve an organization making a choice on whether to pursue own interests or the interest of the society. The issue concerning fraud primarily entails the disclosure of valuable information which is vitally important for security. It also involves misrepresentation of material evidence intentionally. There are several types of fraud and this may include; accounting, marketing and consumer fraud. Discrimination is an ethical issue which can involve an individual or a business. Some individuals or businesses abuse others by enticing them and exploiting them. In addition to that it may include issues regarding race, gender among others. To add to that there are some cases which involve price discrimination. In information technology, the issue entails the privacy and confidentiality of information on matters concerning the employees and consumers. Privacy and confidentiality is essential in this field however there may be some cases where it is not ensured. This has therefore led to ethical issues concerning what is privacy. In addition to that there are ethical issues which involve protection of intellectual property. Ranking The top five issues can be arranged in descending order as honest and fairness, conflict of interest, fraud, discrimination and information technology (College of Micronesia, n. d. ). Honesty and fairness are major issues since they affect all levels of an organization, and are much experienced by society. Furthermore, controlling this issue other issues will be taken care of. For instance, an organization which is honest and fair, issues concerning fraud, discrimination, conflict of interest and information technology are minimal. Analysis Honesty and fairness In the financial market fairness is taken to mean a level playing field for everyone. However, in most cases the playing field is unleveled and this can be attributed to issues concerning inequalities in the bargaining power, possession of information, resources available, among others. Inequalities in the bargaining power and resources are considered to be ethical only when used coercively and violate rights and obligations (Frederick, 2002). This implies that individuals or organization are only allowed to use their advantages in ways that are considered fair to others. Additionally, individuals can use their resources to acquire information which they are entitled to exploit to their advantage. This has made access to information an issue of investment thereby leading to inaccessibility to critical information by some individuals. To acquire information individual must invest adequate resources. Ethical issues arise over accessibility of information, how the information should be distributed to ensure equality. Fraud In sales concerning financial products like insurance policies, loans, mutual funds among others, application of ethical standards is a requirement. Hence businesses are given the mandate to ensure adequate material information is available. There are regulatory agencies which monitor prospectus for mutual funds, however, personal sales and advertisements can contain false or misleading information (Frederick, 2002). Additionally, this is an issue which has been observed in the stock market and in many businesses. Some individuals conceal valuable information to lure more customers to their businesses. For instance, in the stock market assets of a particular organization may be inflated or some of its liabilities may be concealed. This issue has led to large losses in many investment companies and to individuals (Frederick, 2002). Since assessing the risk and suitability for an investment has been made difficult with inadequate material information. Conflict of interest This is issue which is primarily observed in agents, fiduciaries and financial managers, in which the personal interest interferes with the interests of the organization or society. Agents and fiduciaries are given the mandate to act on behalf of others in exercising judgment, however, in cases where they stand to gain personally their judgments may be compromised. Additionally, financial managers are given the mandate to manage assets prudently and thus avoid using them for personal gains however, in some cases conflict of interest might occur. For instance, management buyouts whereby a group of managers take a public organization to be private are an ethical issue. This issue occurs mainly since the actions to be performed by an individual are not fully specified before the transaction and thus an individual is given a wide range of options. In addition to that they are not closely monitored and evaluated. This has led to huge losses being incurred by individuals and companies. For instance, some banks have collapse and this was attributed to rogue traders (Frederick, 2002). Discrimination This issue observed mainly in financial products and it involves abusive practices of selling such as flipping and twisting. In flipping one loan is replaced by another for generation of additional fees. While in twisting, insurance agents persuade their clients to replace the existing policy in order to get commission (Frederick, 2002). Some financial institution abuse poor individuals by offering them loans of high interest and by adding little values to lure them. Furthermore, in some institutions there are cases of discrimination in employment on matters concerning race and gender. Information technology Maintaining privacy and confidentiality of information in many business has been difficult because of the cost of technology. As technology advances it becomes more expensive to ensure privacy of employees’ and clients’ information. Furthermore, with the increase in number of people of accessing the internet maintaining privacy and confidentiality has become difficult. This has therefore led to loss of confident by the public since they cannot trust some organizations to protect their personal information. Solutions and recommendations The issue of conflict of interests can be addressed by closely monitoring individuals and by changing the structure of the relationship. For instance, the commissions can be focused mainly on performance of the client’s portfolios and not on the volumes of sales. Additionally, professionalism, trust and codes of ethics should be strongly emphasized in relationships in order to guarantee the confidence from the society. Fraud and discrimination issues can be solved in courts. There are laws which were put in place in place to protect people against abuse or discrimination. For instance, the Employment Act protects employees against discrimination and harassment. Furthermore, the pre-dispute arbitration agreement should be amended or individuals should avoid it. This agreement may have several advantages but denies adequate protection to investors. Maintaining privacy and confidentiality of clients’ and employees’ information require much funding. It is essential for organizations to invest more funds in acquiring knowledge and skills concerning privacy and confidentiality in the information technology. By ensuring privacy and confidentiality, public confidence will be build. Social responsibility is essential for ensuring ethical standards are maintained in the society. When making decisions, people should consider their effects to the society and to themselves. This will ensure that ethical issues are maintained. Additionally, since businesses cannot be trusted to maintain ethical standards, some laws have been passed to ensure social responsibility. For instance there are laws concerning consumer safety and environment protection. This is a step forward in ensuring ethical standards. Furthermore, there are some financial institutions which have developed and implemented strict policies that ensure ethical standards are adhered. For instance there are policies concerning privacy and confidentiality of employees’ and customers’ information. In conclusion, maintenance of ethical standards should not be the responsibility of an individual or an organization but should involve the whole society. By maintaining ethical standards the society and organizations will be protected from any harm and at the same time eliminate conflict. Even though ethical standards vary from one society to another, they should be understood and maintained adequately. Reference list College of Micronesia, (n. d. ). Code of Ethics. Retrieved June 18, 2009 from http://www. comfsm. fm/~dleeling/alo/personnel/code_of_ethics. html Frederick R. (2002). A companion to business ethics. Edition: 1. New York: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 154-59.